Long-term sequelae of coronavirus disease: long COVID-19 and cardiovascular outcomes (a literature review)

Authors

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.14739/2310-1210.2024.3.292858

Keywords:

Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19), cardiovascular disease, long COVID

Abstract

The COVID-19 pandemic has serious global implications for the healthcare system and economy. Although the recovery rate has increased significantly and the morbidity rate has decreased, long-term consequences, particularly cardiovascular, have come to the fore and become a global problem. As a result, in 2021, at the WHO level, the concept of “long-term COVID” was introduced, including more than 100 already described symptoms in patients for at least 3 months after initial recovery. At the same time, the clinical symptoms are not specific, strategies for the treatment of such disorders have not been worked out, and measures to detect and/or prevent the development of these complications have not been organized.

The aim: to summarize the available data and modern views on the long-term cardiovascular effects of COVID-19, to reveal probable causes and risk factors for their development, as well as to analyze the presented information on the pathogenetic mechanisms of cardiovascular consequences after coronavirus disease.

The literature data analysis has shown that SARS-CoV-2 viral persistence in the human body, reactivation of other viral agents, immune system dysregulation, autoimmunization development as well as the occurrence of microvascular thrombosis and endothelial dysfunction are among the pathogenetic mechanisms of long COVID. Although all these findings represent theoretical concepts regarding the pathogenesis of the long-term consequences of coronavirus disease, complementing and interacting with each other, at the moment, there is no formulated uniform explanation for the development of long-term effects of COVID-19. Also, large-scale studies point to the need for special attention to cardiovascular consequences of COVID-19. Among those already described in the literature are myocarditis, pericarditis, heart failure, arterial hypertension, arrhythmias, pulmonary embolism, cerebrovascular disorders, and cardiomyopathy. Given the prevalence of cardiovascular diseases and their impact on mortality, such processes have become a serious threat to the global healthcare system in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic.

Conclusions. The available information on the causes and mechanisms of the long-term COVID development has been analyzed, and COVID-related cardiovascular disorders described in patients after recovery from acute coronavirus disease have been examined in detail. The study on this issue is extremely important since only by understanding the association between COVID-19 and cardiovascular diseases, studying pathogenetic mechanisms and identifying risk factors, it is possible to improve the prevention and treatment as well as to take control over cardiovascular consequences of COVID-19 at the global level.

Author Biographies

A. V. Hovornyan, Bukovinian State Medical University, Chernivtsi, Ukraine

MD, PhD student of the Department of Propaedeutics of Internal Medicine

T. O. Ilashchuk, Bukovinian State Medical University, Chernivtsi, Ukraine

MD, PhD, DSc, Professor, Head of the Department of Propaedeutics of Internal Medicine

References

  1. Lenz C, Slack MP, Shea KM, Reinert RR, Taysi BN, Swerdlow DL. Long-Term effects of COVID-19: a review of current perspectives and mechanistic insights. Crit Rev Microbiol. 2023 Apr 19:1-14. doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/1040841X.2023.2190405
  2. World Health Organization. WHO COVID-19 Dashboard [Internet]. World Health Organisation. 2023. Available from: https://covid19.who.int
  3. Lippi G, Sanchis-Gomar F, Henry BM. COVID-19 and its long-term sequelae: what do we know in 2023? Pol Arch Intern Med. 2023;133(4):16402. doi: https://doi.org/10.20452/pamw.16402
  4. Lippi G, Mattiuzzi C, Henry BM. Uncontrolled confounding in COVID-19 epidemiology. Diagnosis (Berl). 2022;10(2):200-2. doi: https://doi.org/10.1515/dx-2022-0128
  5. Msemburi W, Karlinsky A, Knutson V, Aleshin-Guendel S, Chatterji S, Wakefield J. The WHO estimates of excess mortality associated with the COVID-19 pandemic. Nature. 2023;613(7942):130-7. doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-022-05522-2
  6. Kim Y, Bae S, Chang HH, Kim SW. Long COVID prevalence and impact on quality of life 2 years after acute COVID-19. Sci Rep. 2023;13(1):11207. doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-36995-4
  7. Heidemann C, Sarganas G, Du Y, Gaertner B, Poethko-Müller C, Cohrdes C, et al. Long-term health consequences among individuals with SARS-CoV-2 infection compared to individuals without infection: results of the population-based cohort study CoMoLo Follow-up. BMC Public Health. 2023;23(1):1587. doi: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-023-16524-8
  8. Hallek M, Adorjan K, Behrends U, Ertl G, Suttorp N, Lehmann C. Post-COVID syndrome. Deutsches Ärzteblatt international. 2023;120:48-55. doi: https://doi.org/10.3238/arztebl.m2022.0409
  9. Lopez-Leon S, Wegman-Ostrosky T, Perelman C, Sepulveda R, Rebolledo PA, Cuapio A, et al. More than 50 long-term effects of COVID-19: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Sci Rep. 2021;11(1):16144. doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-95565-8
  10. Jacobson KB, Rao M, Bonilla H, Subramanian A, Hack I, Madrigal M, et al. Patients With Uncomplicated Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) Have Long-Term Persistent Symptoms and Functional Impairment Similar to Patients with Severe COVID-19: A Cautionary Tale During a Global Pandemic. Clin Infect Dis. 2021;73(3):e826-9. doi: https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciab103
  11. Munblit D, Nicholson T, Akrami A, Apfelbacher C, Chen J, De Groote W, et al. A core outcome set for post-COVID-19 condition in adults for use in clinical practice and research: an international Delphi consensus study. Lancet Respir Med. 2022;10(7):715-24. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/S2213-2600(22)00169-2
  12. Nalbandian A, Desai AD, Wan EY. Post-COVID-19 condition. Annual Review of Medicine. 2023;74:55-64. doi: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-med-043021-030635
  13. Davis HE, McCorkell L, Vogel JM, Topol EJ. Long COVID: major findings, mechanisms and recommendations. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2023;21(3):133-46. doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41579-022-00846-2
  14. Office for National Statistics. Prevalence of Ongoing Symptoms following Coronavirus (COVID-19) Infection in the UK - Office for National Statistics [Internet]. www.ons.gov.uk. 2023. Available from: https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/healthandsocialcare/conditionsanddiseases/bulletins/
  15. Callard F, Perego E. How and why patients made Long Covid. Soc Sci Med. 2021;268:113426. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2020.113426
  16. Soriano JB, Murthy S, Marshall JC, Relan P, Diaz JV; WHO Clinical Case Definition Working Group on Post-COVID-19 Condition. A clinical case definition of post-COVID-19 condition by a Delphi consensus. Lancet Infect Dis. 2022;22(4):e102-7. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(21)00703-9
  17. Shah W, Heightman M, O'Brien S. UK guidelines for managing long-term effects of COVID-19. Lancet. 2021;397(10286):1706. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(21)00847-3
  18. CDC. Post-COVID Conditions: Information for Healthcare Providers [Internet]. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2020. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/hcp/clinical-care/post-covid-conditions.html
  19. Parhizgar P, Yazdankhah N, Rzepka AM, Chung KY, Ali I, Lai Fat Fur R, et al. Beyond Acute COVID-19: A Review of Long-term Cardiovascular Outcomes. Can J Cardiol. 2023;39(6):726-40. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cjca.2023.01.031
  20. Lai YJ, Liu SH, Manachevakul S, Lee TA, Kuo CT, Bello D. Biomarkers in long COVID-19: A systematic review. Front Med (Lausanne). 2023;10:1085988. doi: https://doi.org/10.3389/fmed.2023.1085988
  21. Han Q, Zheng B, Daines L, Sheikh A. Long-Term Sequelae of COVID-19: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of One-Year Follow-Up Studies on Post-COVID Symptoms. Pathogens. 2022;11(2):269. doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11020269
  22. Huang L, Li X, Gu X, Zhang H, Ren L, Guo L, et al. Health outcomes in people 2 years after surviving hospitalisation with COVID-19: a longitudinal cohort study. Lancet Respir Med. 2022;10(9):863-76. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/S2213-2600(22)00126-6
  23. Natarajan A, Shetty A, Delanerolle G, Zeng Y, Zhang Y, Raymont V, et al. A systematic review and meta-analysis of Long COVID symptoms. Systematic reviews. 2023;12(1):1-19. doi: https://doi.org/10.1186/s13643-023-02250-0
  24. Mitrani RD, Dabas N, Goldberger JJ. COVID-19 cardiac injury: Implications for long-term surveillance and outcomes in survivors. Heart Rhythm. 2020;17(11):1984-90. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hrthm.2020.06.026
  25. Blitshteyn S, Whitelaw S. Postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome (POTS) and other autonomic disorders after COVID-19 infection: a case series of 20 patients. Immunol Res. 2021;69(2):205-11. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12026-021-09185-5
  26. Al-Aly Z, Xie Y, Bowe B. High-dimensional characterization of post-acute sequelae of COVID-19. Nature. 2021;594(7862):259-64. doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-03553-9
  27. Ståhlberg M, Reistam U, Fedorowski A, Villacorta H, Horiuchi Y, Bax J, et al. Post-COVID-19 Tachycardia Syndrome: A Distinct Phenotype of Post-Acute COVID-19 Syndrome. Am J Med. 2021;134(12):1451-6. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amjmed.2021.07.004
  28. Xie Y, Xu E, Bowe B, Al-Aly Z. Long-term cardiovascular outcomes of COVID-19. Nat Med. 2022;28(3):583-90. doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-022-01689-3
  29. Logue JK, Franko NM, McCulloch DJ, McDonald D, Magedson A, Wolf CR, et al. Sequelae in Adults at 6 Months After COVID-19 Infection. JAMA Netw Open. 2021;4(2):e210830. doi: https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2021.0830
  30. Stuber M, Baggish AL. Acute Myocardial Injury in the COVID-HEART Study: Emphasizing Scars While Reassuring Scares. Circulation. 2023;147(5):375-377. doi: https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.122.062508
  31. Hayes LD, Ingram J, Sculthorpe NF. More Than 100 Persistent Symptoms of SARS-CoV-2 (Long COVID): A Scoping Review. Front Med (Lausanne). 2021;8:750378. doi: https://doi.org/10.3389/fmed.2021.750378
  32. Chen C, Haupert SR, Zimmermann L, Shi X, Fritsche LG, Mukherjee B. Global Prevalence of Post-Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) Condition or Long COVID: A Meta-Analysis and Systematic Review. J Infect Dis. 2022;226(9):1593-607. doi: https://doi.org/10.1093/infdis/jiac136
  33. Chen B, Julg B, Mohandas S, Bradfute SB; RECOVER Mechanistic Pathways Task Force. Viral persistence, reactivation, and mechanisms of long COVID. Elife. 2023;12:e86015. doi: https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.86015
  34. Stein SR, Ramelli SC, Grazioli A, Chung JY, Singh M, Yinda CK, et al. SARS-CoV-2 infection and persistence in the human body and brain at autopsy. Nature. 2022;612(7941):758-63. doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-022-05542-y
  35. Buonsenso D, Martino L, Morello R, Mariani F, Fearnley K, Valentini P. Viral persistence in children infected with SARS-CoV-2: current evidence and future research strategies. Lancet Microbe. 2023;4(9):e745-56. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/S2666-5247(23)00115-5
  36. Buonsenso D, Piazza M, Boner AL, Bellanti JA. Long COVID: A proposed hypothesis-driven model of viral persistence for the pathophysiology of the syndrome. Allergy Asthma Proc. 2022;43(3):187-93. doi: https://doi.org/10.2500/aap.2022.43.220018
  37. Swank Z, Senussi Y, Manickas-Hill Z, Yu XG, Li JZ, Alter G, et al. Persistent Circulating Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 Spike Is Associated With Post-acute Coronavirus Disease 2019 Sequelae. Clin Infect Dis. 2023;76(3):e487-90. doi: https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciac722
  38. Viral Reactivation and Long COVID [Internet]. RTHM. [cited 2024 Mar 26]. Available from: https://rthm.com/articles/viral-reactivation-and-long-covid/
  39. Sundaresan B, Shirafkan F, Ripperger K, Rattay K. The Role of Viral Infections in the Onset of Autoimmune Diseases. Viruses. 2023;15(3):782. doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/v15030782
  40. Habibi MA, Nezhad Shamohammadi F, Rajaei T, Namdari H, Pashaei MR, Farajifard H, et al. Immunopathogenesis of viral infections in neurological autoimmune disease. BMC Neurol. 2023;23(1):201. doi: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12883-023-03239-x
  41. Su Y, Yuan D, Chen DG, Ng RH, Wang K, Choi J, et al. Multiple early factors anticipate post-acute COVID-19 sequelae. Cell. 2022;185(5):881-895.e20. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2022.01.014
  42. Arthur JM, Forrest JC, Boehme KW, Kennedy JL, Owens S, Herzog C, et al. Development of ACE2 autoantibodies after SARS-CoV-2 infection. PLoS One. 2021;16(9):e0257016. doi: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0257016
  43. Wallukat G, Hohberger B, Wenzel K, Fürst J, Schulze-Rothe S, Wallukat A, et al. Functional autoantibodies against G-protein coupled receptors in patients with persistent Long-COVID-19 symptoms. J Transl Autoimmun. 2021;4:100100. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtauto.2021.100100
  44. Wang EY, Mao T, Klein J, Dai Y, Huck JD, Jaycox JR, et al. Diverse functional autoantibodies in patients with COVID-19. Nature. 2021;595(7866):283-8. doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-03631-y
  45. Klein J, Wood J, Jaycox JR, Dhodapkar RM, Lu P, Gehlhausen JR, et al. Distinguishing features of long COVID identified through immune profiling. Nature. 2023;623(7985):139-48. doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-023-06651-y
  46. Peluso MJ, Lu S, Tang AF, Durstenfeld MS, Ho HE, Goldberg SA, et al. Markers of Immune Activation and Inflammation in Individuals With Postacute Sequelae of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 Infection. J Infect Dis. 2021;224(11):1839-48. doi: https://doi.org/10.1093/infdis/jiab490
  47. Schultheiß C, Willscher E, Paschold L, Gottschick C, Klee B, Henkes SS, et al. The IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF cytokine triad is associated with post-acute sequelae of COVID-19. Cell Reports Medicine. 2022;3(6):100663. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.xcrm.2022.100663
  48. Fernández-Castañeda A, Lu P, Geraghty AC, Song E, Lee MH, Wood J, et al. Mild respiratory COVID can cause multi-lineage neural cell and myelin dysregulation. Cell. 2022;185(14):2452-2468.e16. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2022.06.008
  49. Pretorius E, Vlok M, Venter C, Bezuidenhout JA, Laubscher GJ, Steenkamp J, et al. Persistent clotting protein pathology in Long COVID/Post-Acute Sequelae of COVID-19 (PASC) is accompanied by increased levels of antiplasmin. Cardiovasc Diabetol. 2021;20(1):172. doi: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12933-021-01359-7
  50. Kubánková M, Hohberger B, Hoffmanns J, Fürst J, Herrmann M, Guck J, et al. Physical phenotype of blood cells is altered in COVID-19. Biophys J. 2021;120(14):2838-2847. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bpj.2021.05.025
  51. Ambrosino P, Sanduzzi Zamparelli S, Mosella M, Formisano R, Molino A, Spedicato GA, et al. Clinical assessment of endothelial function in convalescent COVID-19 patients: a meta-analysis with meta-regressions. Ann Med. 2022;54(1):3234-49. doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/07853890.2022.2136403
  52. Patel MA, Knauer MJ, Nicholson M, Daley M, Van Nynatten LR, Martin C, et al. Elevated vascular transformation blood biomarkers in Long-COVID indicate angiogenesis as a key pathophysiological mechanism. Mol Med. 2022;28(1):122. doi: https://doi.org/10.1186/s10020-022-00548-8
  53. Osiaevi I, Schulze A, Evers G, Harmening K, Vink H, Kümpers P, et al. Persistent capillary rarefication in long COVID syndrome. Angiogenesis. 2023;26(1):53-61. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10456-022-09850-9
  54. Xiang H, Liu QP. Alterations of the gut microbiota in coronavirus disease 2019 and its therapeutic potential. World J Gastroenterol. 2022;28(47):6689-701. doi: https://doi.org/10.3748/wjg.v28.i47.6689
  55. Zuo T, Wu X, Wen W, Lan P. Gut Microbiome Alterations in COVID-19. Genomics Proteomics Bioinformatics. 2021;19(5):679-88. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gpb.2021.09.004
  56. Sun Z, Song ZG, Liu C, Tan S, Lin S, Zhu J, et al. Gut microbiome alterations and gut barrier dysfunction are associated with host immune homeostasis in COVID-19 patients. BMC Med. 2022;20(1):24. doi: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12916-021-02212-0
  57. de Nies L, Galata V, Martin-Gallausiaux C, Despotovic M, Busi SB, Snoeck CJ, et al. Altered infective competence of the human gut microbiome in COVID-19. Microbiome. 2023;11(1):46. doi: https://doi.org/10.1186/s40168-023-01472-7
  58. Long A, Kleiner A, Looney RJ. Immune dysregulation. Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology. 2023;151(1):70-80. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2022.11.001
  59. Varghese J, Sandmann S, Ochs K, Schrempf IM, Frömmel C, Dugas M, et al. Persistent symptoms and lab abnormalities in patients who recovered from COVID-19. Sci Rep. 2021;11(1):12775. doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-91270-8
  60. Salamanna F, Veronesi F, Martini L, Landini MP, Fini M. Post-COVID-19 Syndrome: The Persistent Symptoms at the Post-viral Stage of the Disease. A Systematic Review of the Current Data. Front Med (Lausanne). 2021;8:653516. doi: https://doi.org/10.3389/fmed.2021.653516
  61. Teodoro T, Chen J, Gelauff J, Edwards MJ. Functional neurological disorder in people with long COVID: A systematic review. Eur J Neurol. 2023;30(5):1505-14. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/ene.15721
  62. Lam IC, Wong CK, Zhang R, Chui CS, Lai FT, Li X, et al. Long-term post-acute sequelae of COVID-19 infection: a retrospective, multi-database cohort study in Hong Kong and the UK. EClinicalMedicine. 2023;60:102000. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eclinm.2023.102000
  63. Matejova G, Radvan M, Bartecku E, Kamenik M, Koc L, Horinkova J, et al. Cardiac sequelae after COVID-19: Results of a 1-year follow-up study with echocardiography and biomarkers. Front Cardiovasc Med. 2022;9:1067943. doi: https://doi.org/10.3389/fcvm.2022.1067943
  64. Ahmed M, Siva Ranganathan Green, Sundar D. Dilated Cardiomyopathy with Congestive Hepatopathy in Post COVID-19 PatientA Case Report. Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research. 2022;16(4):OD04-OD07. doi: https://doi.org/10.7860/jcdr/2022/53273.16179
  65. Czeisler MÉ, Ibrahim SA. Cardiovascular Risks in Patients With Post-COVID-19 Condition. JAMA Health Forum. 2023;4(3):e224664. doi: https://doi.org/10.1001/jamahealthforum.2022.4664
  66. Chung MK, Zidar DA, Bristow MR, Cameron SJ, Chan T, Harding CV 3rd, et al. COVID-19 and Cardiovascular Disease: From Bench to Bedside. Circ Res. 2021;128(8):1214-36. doi: https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.121.317997
  67. Fairweather D, Beetler DJ, Di Florio DN, Musigk N, Heidecker B, Cooper LT Jr. COVID-19, Myocarditis and Pericarditis. Circ Res. 2023;132(10):1302-19. doi: https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.123.321878
  68. Tuvali O, Tshori S, Derazne E, Hannuna RR, Afek A, Haberman D, et al. The Incidence of Myocarditis and Pericarditis in Post COVID-19 Unvaccinated Patients-A Large Population-Based Study. J Clin Med. 2022;11(8):2219. doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm11082219
  69. Terzic CM, Medina-Inojosa BJ. Cardiovascular Complications of Coronavirus Disease-2019. Phys Med Rehabil Clin N Am. 2023;34(3):551-61. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmr.2023.03.003
  70. Rohun J, Dorniak K, Faran A, Kochańska A, Zacharek D, Daniłowicz-Szymanowicz L. Long COVID-19 Myocarditis and Various Heart Failure Presentations: A Case Series. J Cardiovasc Dev Dis. 2022;9(12):427. doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/jcdd9120427
  71. Chadda KR, Blakey EE, Huang CL, Jeevaratnam K. Long COVID-19 and Postural Orthostatic Tachycardia Syndrome- Is Dysautonomia to Be Blamed? Front Cardiovasc Med. 2022;9:860198. doi: https://doi.org/10.3389/fcvm.2022.860198
  72. Allendes FJ, Díaz HS, Ortiz FC, Marcus NJ, Quintanilla R, Inestrosa NC, et al. Cardiovascular and autonomic dysfunction in long-COVID syndrome and the potential role of non-invasive therapeutic strategies on cardiovascular outcomes. Front Med (Lausanne). 2023;9:1095249. doi: https://doi.org/10.3389/fmed.2022.1095249
  73. Izquierdo-Marquisá A, Cubero-Gallego H, Aparisi Á, Vaquerizo B, Ribas-Barquet N. Myocardial Injury in COVID-19 and Its Implications in Short- and Long-Term Outcomes. Front Cardiovasc Med. 2022;9:901245. doi: https://doi.org/10.3389/fcvm.2022.901245
  74. Bonow RO, Fonarow GC, O'Gara PT, Yancy CW. Association of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) With Myocardial Injury and Mortality. JAMA Cardiol. 2020;5(7):751-3. doi: https://doi.org/10.1001/jamacardio.2020.1105
  75. McKee S. COVID-19: Effects on the Cardiovascular System [Internet]. Clinical Advisor. 2023. Available from: https://www.clinicaladvisor.com/home/topics/infectious-diseases-information-center/covid-19-effects-cardiovascular-system/
  76. Puntmann VO, Martin S, Shchendrygina A, Hoffmann J, Ka MM, Giokoglu E, et al. Long-term cardiac pathology in individuals with mild initial COVID-19 illness. Nat Med. 2022;28(10):2117-23. doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-022-02000-0
  77. Krishnan A, Ellenberger KA, Phetsouphanh C, Kelleher AP, Matthews GV, Darley DR, et al. Myocardial fibrosis occurs in non-hospitalised patients with chronic symptoms after COVID-19. Int J Cardiol Heart Vasc. 2022;39:100964. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijcha.2022.100964
  78. Darley DR, Dore GJ, Byrne AL, Plit ML, Brew BJ, Kelleher A, et al. Limited recovery from post-acute sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 at 8 months in a prospective cohort. ERJ Open Res. 2021;7(4):00384-2021. doi: https://doi.org/10.1183/23120541.00384-2021
  79. Lampropoulos CE, Mavrogeni S, Dervas A, Manios E, Chatzidou S, Kontogiannis C, et al. Myocardial fibrosis after COVID-19 infection and severe sinus arrest episodes in an asymptomatic patient with mild sleep apnea syndrome: A case report and review of the literature. Respir Med Case Rep. 2021;32:101366. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rmcr.2021.101366
  80. Omidi F, Hajikhani B, Kazemi SN, Tajbakhsh A, Riazi S, Mirsaeidi M, et al. COVID-19 and Cardiomyopathy: A Systematic Review. Front Cardiovasc Med. 2021;8:695206. doi: https://doi.org/10.3389/fcvm.2021.695206
  81. Juusela A, Nazir M, Gimovsky M. Two cases of coronavirus 2019-related cardiomyopathy in pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol MFM. 2020;2(2):100113. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajogmf.2020.100113
  82. Schreiber A, Elango K, Soussu C, Fakhra S, Asad S, Ahsan C. COVID-19 Induced Cardiomyopathy Successfully Treated with Tocilizumab. Case Rep Cardiol. 2022;2022:9943937. doi: https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/9943937
  83. Khalid Y, Dasu N, Dasu K. A case of novel coronavirus (COVID-19)-induced viral myocarditis mimicking a Takotsubo cardiomyopathy. HeartRhythm Case Rep. 2020;6(8):473-6. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hrcr.2020.05.020
  84. Arrigo M, Jessup M, Mullens W, Reza N, Shah AM, Sliwa K, et al. Acute heart failure. Nat Rev Dis Primers. 2020;6(1):16. doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41572-020-0151-7
  85. Zhang V, Fisher M, Hou W, Zhang L, Duong TQ. Incidence of New-Onset Hypertension Post-COVID-19: Comparison With Influenza. Hypertension. 2023;80(10):2135-48. doi: https://doi.org/10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.123.21174
  86. Vyas P, Joshi D, Sharma V, Parmar M, Vadodariya J, Patel K, et al. Incidence and predictors of development of new onset hypertension post COVID-19 disease. Indian Heart J. 2023;75(5):347-51. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ihj.2023.06.002
  87. Burger CD, DuBrock HM, Cartin-Ceba R, Moss JE, Shapiro BP, Frantz RP. Topic-Based, Recent Literature Review on Pulmonary Hypertension. Mayo Clin Proc. 2021;96(12):3109-21. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mayocp.2021.05.026
  88. Maron BA. Revised Definition of Pulmonary Hypertension and Approach to Management: A Clinical Primer. J Am Heart Assoc. 2023;12(8):e029024. doi: https://doi.org/10.1161/JAHA.122.029024
  89. Martin AI, Rao G. COVID-19: A Potential Risk Factor for Acute Pulmonary Embolism. Methodist Debakey Cardiovasc J. 2020;16(2):155-7. doi: https://doi.org/10.14797/mdcj-16-2-155
  90. Gul MH, Htun ZM, de Jesus Perez V, Suleman M, Arshad S, Imran M, et al. Predictors and outcomes of acute pulmonary embolism in COVID-19; insights from US National COVID cohort collaborative. Respir Res. 2023;24(1):59. doi: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12931-023-02369-7
  91. Katsoularis I, Fonseca-Rodríguez O, Farrington P, Jerndal H, Lundevaller EH, Sund M, et al. Risks of deep vein thrombosis, pulmonary embolism, and bleeding after covid-19: nationwide self-controlled cases series and matched cohort study. BMJ. 2022;377:e069590. doi: https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj-2021-069590

Downloads

Published

2024-05-31

How to Cite

1.
Hovornyan AV, Ilashchuk TO. Long-term sequelae of coronavirus disease: long COVID-19 and cardiovascular outcomes (a literature review). Zaporozhye Medical Journal [Internet]. 2024May31 [cited 2026May16];26(3):223-3. Available from: https://zmj.zsmu.edu.ua/article/view/292858

Issue

Vol. 26 No. 3 (2024)

Section

Review

License

Authors who publish with this journal agree to the following terms:

Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.  Лицензия Creative Commons